The ancient profession of prostitution has a wealth of information available, but I do not intend to collect data for a comprehensive discussion here. I will only address a few points.
I. Origin of the Industry#
Humans have observed that many female primates or monkeys engage in prostitution for survival or food. This is due to the fact that male primates are generally stronger than females, leading to male-led communities. However, there are exceptions, such as the bonobo, which is known for its matriarchal structure and peaceful promiscuity.
The basic desires of men and women revolve around food and sex. Sexuality is a fundamental survival element, alongside food. This is driven by genetics. For a species to reproduce, it must evolve strong sexual pleasure, impulses, and instincts; otherwise, it risks extinction. Many animals become frantic or disregard their lives during mating seasons.
In terms of sexual relationships, different animals exhibit different behaviors. For instance, many bird species typically maintain monogamous pair bonds and happily incubate eggs together. Regardless of mating, female birds will lay eggs due to inherited genetic traits, but both parents can participate equally in incubation and rearing. Conversely, for some species, reproduction significantly increases survival risks and causes great suffering, leading to less willingness to mate. For example, in certain species of beetles, males violently pierce females with their reproductive organs, while ducks have evolved convoluted vaginas and penises due to the dynamics of forced copulation and resistance.
Returning to humans, as Freud said, sex is one of the basic instincts of humanity. However, unlike animals, civilization suppresses these instincts.
Before civilization emerged, there may have been two coexisting situations: on one hand, males hunted while females gathered and cared for the young, living in small-scale communities without monogamous pair bonds (no knowledge of fathers, only mothers), with widespread genital and sexual worship, thus no sexual taboos existed. On the other hand, humans recognized the need to avoid incest, leading to inter-tribal sexual exchanges. Some tribes cooperated, while others were aggressive, akin to chimpanzees, killing males from rival tribes to seize females. Both methods could be employed depending on the balance of power between tribes; otherwise, stronger tribes would dominate weaker ones, leading to the extinction of weaker groups. The term "marriage" is believed to refer to the practice in primitive societies where the male tribe would enter the female tribe to abduct individuals as part of marriage rituals. War led to the formation of male-dominated military organizations, where violence allowed men to attain dominance in gender relations. Major civilizations originated from aggressive male-led tribes, with legendary ancestors often being military leaders.
As larger cities and nations developed, civilization arose, and laws and systems were established. Relationships between men and women became governed by morality and law. In monogamous marriages, men gained complete control over women, emphasizing loyalty to ensure property and power were passed to their genetic offspring. In marriage, men did not seek sexual satisfaction as a primary goal; Engels stated that "prostitution is a necessary supplement to monogamy."
The prostitution industry is generally believed to have three origins.
First is religious prostitution. In early major civilizations such as Egypt, Babylon, Greece, China, India, and Japan, there were female priests or priestesses who entertained gods through song and dance, often considered to be part-time prostitutes. In Babylon, women were required to dedicate themselves to foreign men at the temple of the goddess Milita. In ancient Egypt, the most beautiful women of the noble class were offered to the god Amun, engaging in debauchery within the temple for a period. Herodotus recorded that around the time of the Greco-Persian Wars, there was a custom in Greece and surrounding areas where women had to dedicate themselves at the temple of Aphrodite at least once in their lifetime, and unless a foreign man threw money at her feet, she could not leave the temple. The amount of money, regardless of how much, could not be refused, as the law prohibited refusal. The money thrown at her feet was considered sacred, and she was obliged to engage with the first man who threw money, regardless of how many men there were. In various temples dedicated to different love deities, such as the temple of Aphrodite, there were priestesses who engaged in lifelong prostitution to earn money for the temple, which later transformed into earning for themselves.
In China, the character for "prostitute" does not exist in the "Shuowen Jiezi," which has the character "chang" instead. Duan Yucai's commentary states: "It is called 'chang' when it is spoken of in jest, and 'you' when it is spoken of in music. It is also called 'chang,' referring to the same thing." Similarly, "ji" originally referred to performers, specifically those who sang and danced. The deity worshipped by prostitutes is the white-browed god Hongya, who is said to be the music official of the Yellow Emperor. They were originally performers of music and dance for religious rituals, and records of their customs can still be found in pre-Qin states like Zheng, Wei, and Chu, such as the goddess of Wushan.
Next are official and military prostitutes. Guan Zhong first established 700 female brothels, collecting their earnings as military funds. During the Solon reforms, centralized public brothels were established in Athens, generally believed to be a means of taxing slave prostitution. Emperor Wu of Han established "camp prostitutes" in the military, and by the Tang dynasty, camp prostitutes also engaged in external business. The sources of these prostitutes were captives, slaves, or the female relatives of convicted criminals. The "Book of Wei: Criminal Law" states: "For robbers who kill, the leader and all followers are executed, and their wives and children are made 'musical households'; for those who do not kill or whose loot is less than five pieces, the leader is executed, and followers die, while wives are also made 'musical households'; for petty thieves with loot exceeding ten pieces, the leader dies, and wives are sent to the post, while followers are exiled." The same applied during the Sui and Tang dynasties.
Furthermore, there are free women who become prostitutes. Most of them fall into this profession due to war, famine, or family changes. Some dynasties issued laws prohibiting respectable women from becoming prostitutes, but these were largely unenforceable. The emergence of the prostitution industry among the common people is generally believed to have occurred late, starting in the Southern Dynasties and forming during the Ming and Qing dynasties. I believe this is due to two factors: a lack of early historical records and the need for a relatively developed commodity economy.
II. Development of the Industry#
In China, the industry saw a peak in official and military prostitutes during the Tang and Song dynasties, with private prostitutes gradually replacing official ones during the Ming dynasty, and official prostitutes being abolished in the Qing dynasty. I will not discuss this comprehensively but will highlight a few recorded events.
During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, frequent wars and significant ethnic changes led to the capture of entire foreign populations as mixed households or military households. After Tuoba Yan pacified the "northern people" in the fifth year of the Taiping Zhenjun era, he executed their leader and relocated the remaining population to the provinces of Ji, Xiang, and Ding as military households. The following year, Emperor Xiaowen suppressed the rebels in Lianchuan and relocated the captured populations to Qing, Xu, Qi, and Chong provinces as military households. After Shen Qingzhi suppressed the barbarians, he brought over 60,000 captured "living barbarians" and "surrendered barbarians" to the capital to form military households. This cycle continued for generations; even with changes in dynasties, they remained enslaved.
The military prostitutes of the Tang and Song dynasties not only served the army but also local officials. When a new official took office, all military prostitutes would go to welcome him. There are many records of former officials entrusting their beloved military prostitutes to the care of their successors, as well as instances of punishment leading to the death of military prostitutes, or military prostitutes pleading with familiar officials for help in obtaining their freedom, which I will not elaborate on here.
Zhu Yuanzhang made the wives and daughters of his subordinates, such as Zhang Shicheng, into official prostitutes, amounting to tens of thousands. The descendants of Chen Youliang and his followers, including the surnames Chen, Qian, Lin, Li, Yuan, Sun, Zhao, Xu, and He, were demoted to boat dwellers, living as lowly servants, with their families accompanying them learning to play musical instruments to entertain. During the Daoguang and Xianfeng eras, there were still over a thousand boats remaining.
When Zhu Di rebelled, he killed the civil and military officials of the Jianwen Emperor and exiled their families to border regions like Shanxi and Shaanxi, categorizing them as musical households, ensuring they could never become respectable citizens and would remain in lowly occupations for generations.
The "National History Anecdotes" states: "The wife of Tie Xuan, Yang, aged thirty-five, was sent to the music bureau; the wife of Lao, Zhang, aged fifty-six, was also sent to the music bureau, and Zhang soon passed away. The music bureau reported to the emperor: 'By imperial decree, take them out of the gate of Shangyuan County and let the dogs eat them, so be it.'" Another record states: "In the twelfth month of the second year of Yongle, the music bureau reported that the women Yang and Liu, who had no permits, were sent to the Duke of Hong's camp for prostitution. On the eleventh day of the first month of the eleventh year of Yongle, the music bureau reported that four women, including Qi Tai's wife and her niece, were guarded by over twenty men every night, with the younger ones already pregnant, and a three-year-old girl was also reported. The emperor was petitioned for approval. It was decreed that unless they grew up, they would be considered worthless for prostitution. It was also reported that Huang Zicheng's wife had a son, now ten years old, and was also subject to the same decree."
The cruelty of the Zhu family was such that even contemporaries could not bear to witness it. In the early Hongwu period, during a drought, Liu Ji suggested: "The soldiers of Wu who died in battle had their wives all assigned to other camps, amounting to tens of thousands, causing a buildup of resentment. The soldiers who surrendered were all categorized as military households, which would help restore harmony." In the twenty-first year of Hongwu, Xie Jin submitted a lengthy memorial: "The music bureau is a place of debauchery, and official prostitutes are inhumane. Nowadays, the virtuous may not be honored, while the wrongdoers are punished. Moreover, the law prioritizes human relationships, yet there are provisions for assigning women to men. If taken from the unjust, how can one expect virtue and loyalty?"
During the Yongzheng era, multiple edicts were issued to reduce the status of various lowly individuals, converting them to respectable citizens, and all official prostitutes from the music bureau were abolished and restored to respectable status. Although official prostitutes were abolished, starting from the late Qing dynasty, "prostitute donations" were collected in the capital and provinces, with those who contributed to the official halls being termed "official prostitutes," while others were labeled "private prostitutes." At the same time, the Qing dynasty prohibited officials from consorting with prostitutes, leading to a shift in their preferences towards young, refined male performers.
III. Ecology of the Industry#
Human society itself forms a complex ecological hierarchy of a "big fish eats small fish" patriarchal system, with prostitutes existing at all levels of this ecology, facing vastly different circumstances depending on their ecological niche.
Li Yannian and his sister, Lady Li, were both part of military households, with Lady Li being taken into the palace by Emperor Wu of Han and eventually becoming empress. However, Emperor Wu was known for his violent temperament, having killed three of his four empresses. Lady Li died young due to illness, fearing that her deteriorating appearance would lead to losing the emperor's favor and endangering her brother, so she did not want to be seen by him before her death.
Emperors such as Liang Jianwen, Song Huizong, Song Lizong, Ming Wuzong, and Tongzhi all have stories of hiring prostitutes, with some even leaving behind romantic tales. Liang Jianwen wrote "The Song of the Bird's Nest": "The green ox and the red car, how pitiful to spend the night at a brothel." Even emperors, with countless concubines and palace maids, had such preferences; how much more so for others? Their nights spent at brothels were a form of progress compared to maintaining a large harem filled with resentful women and wandering husbands.
Prostitutes attached to the upper echelons of society held high status. For example, when Song Jiang sought amnesty, he had to seek out Li Shishi. This is understandable, as the social hierarchy is based on a pyramid of resources and power, and high-ranking prostitutes could also enjoy the overflow of resources and power. This phenomenon is evident in various civilizations with social stratification. In 16th-century Italy, a famous prostitute named Franco charged 4-5 gold coins for a kiss, equivalent to six months' wages for a household servant, who was considered a high-wage laborer in the medieval period, far exceeding that of a typical peasant. Franco charged 50 gold coins for a sexual encounter. Another famous prostitute, De Aragon, charged 100 gold coins for an entire night, equivalent to ten years' wages for a servant.
Among Greek prostitutes, there was a high-class group known as "hetairai." They were mostly young, beautiful, graceful, and talented female slaves, specifically educated and trained by their owners from a young age. They generally did not engage in casual prostitution but were bought by generals, politicians, scholars, and artists. In their youth, they were concentrated in the temple of Aphrodite for education and training, and upon completion, they awaited buyers.
One notable prostitute, Phryne, was talented and wealthy. She financed the reconstruction of Thebes' city walls and inscribed a proud inscription: "Alexander destroyed it; I, the famous prostitute Phryne, rebuilt it."
Aspasia, born in Miletus, came to Athens as a young girl and became the famous statesman Pericles' wife, who divorced his wife to marry her. Her influence was so great that she managed to persuade Athens not to attack her hometown of Miletus during the war with Samos. She was independent of her husband and was said to still engage in prostitution in regular brothels.
The attire of prostitutes during the Han dynasty was far superior to that of ordinary women. Jia Yi stated: "Now commoners can wear imperial clothing, while prostitutes and entertainers can wear court attire." The lives of some famous prostitutes in the early Han dynasty were comparable to those of nobles. For example, the famous prostitute Shi Feng from Xuancheng had luxurious and extravagant living quarters filled with various treasures, and a wealthy man had to pay 300,000 to see them all. As a result, people lamented, "Looking through the window, one envies the brothel's courtesans, while their fingers remain idle, their chests filled with clothes."
Prostitutes in the Song dynasty also enjoyed relatively affluent lives, with some famous courtesans living in extravagance. Their rooms were adorned with embroidered curtains, famous paintings, ancient stoves, and musical instruments, while their courtyards displayed exotic fish, rare plants, and beautiful flowers. They disregarded court prohibitions and openly imitated the lifestyles of the wealthy. Some singers, who were not allowed to ride in palanquins, openly rode in eight-bearers' palanquins, flaunting their status.
In modern times, prostitutes in Shanghai have challenged traditional feudal hierarchies. The "Great Qing Code" explicitly prohibited prostitutes from wearing silk, satin, gauze, or any fine-colored clothing, yet Shanghai prostitutes were often seen in silk and satin, and performers in gold-embroidered garments became commonplace. Whenever they went out, they would ride in large palanquins, with their names prominently displayed on lanterns to showcase their flamboyance.
However, there is very little record of the vast majority of lower-tier prostitutes. In Feng Menglong's book "Huang Ying'er," there are listings of various types of prostitutes, including dancing girls, old prostitutes, teaching prostitutes, thin prostitutes, sailing prostitutes, tall prostitutes, happy prostitutes, bald prostitutes, hunchbacked prostitutes, fat prostitutes, foolish prostitutes, rich prostitutes, talkative prostitutes, short prostitutes, alliance prostitutes, sore prostitutes, ugly prostitutes, substitute prostitutes, performing prostitutes, selling prostitutes, sick prostitutes, poor prostitutes, greedy prostitutes, drunken prostitutes, sleeping prostitutes, black prostitutes, clumsy prostitutes, blanket prostitutes, expanding prostitutes, pregnant prostitutes, 麻妓，village prostitutes, mute prostitutes, dragging prostitutes, jumping prostitutes, noisy prostitutes, drilling prostitutes, and lewd prostitutes, totaling over forty types. They served men of various social classes and sexual preferences.
Even high-class prostitutes are merely accessories. Green Pearl and Chen Yuanyuan both perished alongside the powerful who possessed them. The famous courtesan Guan Panpan was a concubine of Zhang Jianfeng, and she lived alone in the Swallow Tower to maintain her chastity. Bai Juyi wrote a poem mocking her inability to die for her chastity, leading her to starve herself to death. Zhu Xi tortured the military prostitute Yan Rui, who had connections with his political rival Tang Zhongyou, "Within two months, she was beaten repeatedly, nearly to death."
IV. Prostitution in Cultural Thought#
Prostitutes, engaged in a lowly profession, are looked down upon by the masses, yet they are often portrayed positively or even praised in the cultural narratives of intellectuals across various countries. There are many reasons for this.
First, the plight of prostitutes as the weak elicits sympathy, allowing people to empathize with their own situations. For example, Bai Juyi's "Song of the Pipa" reflects the sentiments of talented individuals who feel unrecognized. Throughout history, many have genuinely sympathized with their circumstances, as seen in numerous stories from "Three Words and Two Beats."
Second, because prostitutes are seen as weak, representing the lowest tier of society and symbols of humiliation and harm, thinkers who wish to redeem humanity often feel compelled to redeem them, believing that doing so would redeem everyone. For instance, the Pharisees brought a woman caught in adultery to Jesus, saying, "Teacher, this woman was caught in the act of adultery. Moses commanded us to stone such women. What do you say?" Jesus replied, "Let any one of you who is without sin be the first to throw a stone at her." Jesus also healed Mary Magdalene, who witnessed his resurrection. The sympathy and redemption of prostitutes are common themes in romantic and realist novels, such as "Les Misérables," "The Lady of the Camellias," "Resurrection," and "The Moonlight."
Third, scholars uphold their integrity, but when faced with significant changes that test human nature, people tend to cling to life and fear death, leading to self-deprecating or mocking reflections on why prostitutes can do what scholars cannot, as seen in the stories of the Eight Beauties of Qinhuai. Works like "The Peach Blossom Fan," "The Round and Round Song," and "The Legend of Liu Rushi" illustrate this.
Fourth, people hold mysterious or sacred views of sexuality. The "Fish Blue Guanyin" from the Thirty-Three Transformations of Guanyin originates from the story of the Ma Lang woman in the Tang dynasty. Li Fuyan's "Continuation of the Strange Records" recounts that during the Tang Dali years, there was a woman in Yan Prefecture who engaged in promiscuity and eventually died. People buried her by a desolate road. A Hu monk came to her grave, burned incense, and praised her, telling everyone: "This is a great saint, compassionate and generous, fulfilling all worldly desires; this is the Bodhisattva of the collarbone." When people opened her grave, they found it as the monk had said, leading them to set up a feast and build a pagoda for her. This story has many variations, but Guanyin is associated with sexuality as a path to enlightenment. Similar beliefs exist in other religions and sects. Regardless of perspective, sexuality is a crucial aspect of humanity, and prostitutes are experts in sexual matters.
Fifth, the act of famous individuals hiring prostitutes has historically been viewed as a refined and elegant affair. During the Tang and Song dynasties, many scholars heading to the capital for examinations would first visit the brothels of Pingkang. When in office, social gatherings often required entertainment from the music bureau. The anecdotes of famous figures such as Yuan Zhen, Bai Juyi, Du Mu, Ouyang Xiu, Su Dongpo, and Fan Zhongyan have been passed down through generations. In the West, figures like Monet, Van Gogh, Nietzsche, Flaubert, Maupassant, Hugo, Mozart, and Beethoven have also connected the act of hiring prostitutes with art.
Sixth, in a context where women are seen as subordinate to men, respectable women are often confined to their homes. In contrast, prostitutes, not belonging to any specific man, gain a degree of freedom that allows many to leave their names in history. The "Complete Poems of the Tang Dynasty" includes poems by twenty-one prostitutes, totaling one hundred thirty-six pieces. For instance, Xue Tao, known for her poetic talent, was recognized for her literary skills and became a female scribe in the court. Throughout the eleven provinces, she gained fame through her poetry and later retired to Huahua Creek, donning women's attire and making paper for notes, which became known as Xue Tao paper. Works like "The Liwa Legend," "The Legend of Huo Xiaoyu," and "The Rescue of the Wind Dust," as well as novels from the Ming and Qing dynasties, often praise the pursuit of freedom by prostitutes. In real history, figures like Yu Xuanji, Liang Hongyu, Sai Jinhua, Xiao Fengxian, Pan Yuliang, and Dong Zhujun are also regarded as legendary. Even if they do not reach the level of historical fame, they are still far freer than women confined to their homes. The "Records of the Grand Historian: Treatise on Wealth" states: "Zhao's daughter, Zheng Ji, set her appearance, played the zither, and attracted wealthy men, traveling far and wide, regardless of age, seeking wealth." It further states: "In Zhongshan, where the land is thin and the population dense, there are still sand dunes. For courtesans, they play the zither and charm the rich and powerful, entering the harem and serving various lords."
In summary, people share common feelings and reasoning. Sympathy for the weak and a yearning for freedom are universal.
V. Realistic Examination of Sex Workers#
In reality, there is a vast number of sex workers across all social strata. However, they are often silent, making it difficult for outsiders to grasp the full picture. I lack extensive research in this area, but based on what I have observed, I believe the reasons for entering this profession can be categorized into several types.
First is economic necessity. This is common among lower classes, where there is a lack of means and job opportunities, forcing individuals to seek survival for themselves and their families. After the wave of layoffs in Northeast China, many Northeast prostitutes spread across the country, with some middle-aged women even ending up in France. It is said that husbands rode bicycles to take their wives to work as prostitutes. A popular song at the time went: "Laid-off sisters, don't cry, walk proudly into the nightclub; accompany the wealthy, earn tips, don't burden the country; father and mother, suffering for half a lifetime, now facing unemployment is bleak; weak women, be self-reliant, use your bodies to support your parents." Professor Pan Suiming conducted a survey: "After being laid off or unemployed, only less than 9% of women directly became prostitutes; the rest had gone through a considerable amount of time and various jobs before ultimately choosing to enter the sex industry."
Second is personal downfall. Individuals who once had opportunities to change their lives through education, marriage, or work may miss critical choices at pivotal moments, leading to self-destructive behavior. The proportion of such cases in Pan Suiming's survey was quite high, and I suspect there are genuine situations as well as excuses for personal failures.
Third is a lack of better skills and opportunities for making a living. Individuals from poor educational backgrounds and family circumstances can only engage in low-level jobs like assembly line workers or restaurant servers. These jobs are exhausting and poorly compensated. In comparison, prostitution can be a more lucrative option. Pan Suiming stated that prostitution is a choice of occupational parallel displacement.
Fourth, some individuals may have a certain level of education and good looks, but the income from being an ordinary employee pales in comparison to that of a high-class prostitute. For example, in "The First Stove," Ge Weilong comes from a middle-class family and could afford to attend university in Hong Kong, but after graduation, she struggled to find a good job and could not reach a higher social class, making being a socialite more appealing. As mentioned earlier, prostitutes exist across all social strata, and those attached to the upper class can earn considerable sums; for instance, Li Yundi once paid 8,000 yuan for a single encounter, which is roughly their market price. Prostitutes from all strata earn significantly more through prostitution than they could from other jobs.
As previously mentioned, the prostitution industry relies on the overflow of wealth. Lower-tier clients are generally small business owners, salespeople, long-haul truck drivers, and laborers, who have low incomes and can only afford limited expenditures. However, being away from home, they possess a certain willingness and ability to spend. The lowest tier is often found in small towns, along major transportation routes, or even in small mines. Their circumstances are dire, lacking even the most basic health security and necessary knowledge.
In contrast, those in the upper tier reside in five-star hotels, wear designer clothes, and post photos on social media daily, making their hometown friends envious.
Most are ordinary people striving to survive, yet their rights are not protected, placing them at the bottom of society due to both personal and societal factors. For instance, a recently well-known individual named Chen in Japan once earned a considerable amount of money but spent it all on her boyfriend and maid café. There is no need to elevate or belittle their situation; most cannot rely on their abilities to rise in this era, but it is not their fault. The need to rise is a modern issue; over a hundred years ago, most people did not face such dilemmas.
A good society should allow both the strong and the weak to live. Some individuals are relatively weak in this era, and their desires and ideals may not be lofty; as long as they do not infringe upon others, their pursuits are legitimate.
VI. Prostitution and Feminism#
First, it is important to clarify that feminism is fundamentally a power structure issue, a core problem that, if resolved, could address many other issues. The primary work remains male-centered, and the status of women as secondary has not completely changed. Many gender issues require women to possess wealth, power, and influence in public matters equivalent to men.
From a feminist perspective, prostitution is viewed through two different lenses: prohibition and legalization.
Those who advocate for the prohibition of prostitution argue that it leads to the objectification and commodification of women, resulting in their oppression, as many sex workers' health and development are not safeguarded.
Conversely, those who support legalization argue that sex is a matter of personal freedom. Although it introduces a commercial relationship, it remains a matter of individual freedom. Only through legalization can the safety, health, and rights of sex workers be ensured. Countries that have legalized prostitution generally have higher statuses for women.
My basic viewpoint is that prohibiting prostitution is based on moral concepts and lacks sufficient legal justification; however, everyone knows that such prohibitions are unenforceable in practice. Therefore, it is necessary to protect sex workers in reality, helping them avoid control by unscrupulous individuals, ensuring their health, and distancing them from drugs. Everyone knows who poses the greatest harm to them. I am aware that some NGOs have worked on these issues in recent years, but I do not know if they still exist.
Moreover, while private ownership is a reason for prostitution, it is also a cornerstone of civilization. We see from previous examples that high-class prostitutes can protect their own property, and property rights guarantee freedom. This important proposition cannot be elaborated on here.
Throughout the Song dynasty, it is estimated that the only scholar who did not hire prostitutes was Wang Anshi, whose ideal was: "The wealth of the people should be indistinguishable from public and private property. The ruler wields power like heaven holding a scale. All taxes should be self-imposed, and usury should be punished. Usury should be punished by law, and power should not come from nowhere." To increase state revenue, he allowed official prostitutes to sell wine in state-run hotels. It is easy to imagine that the income would not be high and would go to the public, and I doubt the official prostitutes would be very willing.
We can say that each of us is selling our bodies for wealth, and our ideal is to reduce working hours to gain more personal freedom. I support providing unconditional basic guarantees for the lower classes, allowing them more time and conditions for learning and growth.
Engels stated: "The difference between marriage and prostitution is merely wholesale and retail." Zhang Ailing said: "If marriage is for the sake of livelihood, then marriage is long-term prostitution." The reality is that marriage, in most cases, is merely a commercial relationship. At any point in human history and in any civilization, only a portion of people have praised and demanded fidelity in monogamous marriages. This is because sexual exclusivity stems from men's demands of women. Over time, this evolved into an ideal for some to uphold social morals and establish a moral order. From a leftist perspective, marriage is a form of bondage, and the marriage rate will inevitably decline, allowing individuals to gain more freedom.
All theories should aim for human freedom. This brief article reflects the lives of countless individuals who have lived, filled with hope and despair, happiness and suffering. With compassion for the emotional and benefits for all beings, we hope to ensure that everyone can choose their own free life.